The Guide to Interview Analysis

Types of Research Interviews

While conducting interviews in research shares the same purpose of collecting in-depth information about a participant or phenomenon, different methods allow for a more restricted or free collection. Some interviews have specific questions while others are more flexible and allow improvised questions. In this article, we will go through the intricacies of different interview types for research and explain the differences between structured, unstructured, and semi-structured interview methods.

Introduction

Interviewing is a common data collection method in qualitative research. Conducting interviews serves as a framework to record, challenge, and reinforce practices and standards (Jamshed, 2014). Most interviews fall into one of three categories: the structured, semi-structured, or unstructured research interview. These structured and unstructured interviews differ by the extent to which they rely on pre-determined questions, and each approach comes with its own strengths and drawbacks that we consider in more detail below. In addition, we also discuss other research methods, such as focus groups, to provide another point of comparison with these three main individual research interview formats.

A structured interview is ideal for collecting consistent and comparable data, while an unstructured interview is similar to a free-flowing conversation between the researcher and the interview participant. In between these two extremes, semi-structured interviews combine both a set of pre-determined questions with space for flexibility and spontaneous questions. Focus groups also allow participants to openly express themselves, but the group nature renders focus group interviews more appropriate for studies addressing group dynamics or collective meaning-making. Given the diverse strengths of each research method, they can be found across research areas, from ethnographers conducting interviews using unstructured methods in their long-term fieldwork to healthcare researchers who conduct interviews using semi-structured approaches to systematically probe and explore a new topic.

Structured interviews

Structured interviews are often used in qualitative research where the researcher seeks more controlled, systematic data collection. These interviews follow a predetermined set of questions, keeping the interviewer and respondent focused on specific topics. While structured interviews may lack the flexibility of free-flowing, unstructured formats, they have unique advantages that make them suitable for certain research contexts.

When are structured interviews most useful?

Structured interviews work best in research that relies on a well-defined theoretical framework. In such cases, the interviewer can devise questions based on existing research, ensuring that new data builds upon prior knowledge. This type of interview is particularly useful when the researcher is confident about which questions are important and can accurately predict the kind of information needed.

Unlike unstructured interviews, which allow for more open-ended responses and probing questions, structured interviews are designed to collect specific data. This approach is ideal when the goal is to obtain consistent, comparable responses from multiple participants. It is less suitable for research contexts that are exploratory or where the researcher is unsure about which questions might yield the most useful data.

Advantages of structured interviews

One key advantage of structured interviews is that they provide focus. When the conversation follows a strict set of questions, there is less chance for the interview to veer off-topic. By sticking to the script, the interviewer ensures that the conversation remains relevant and aligned with the research goals.

Structured interviews also make it easier to compare responses across different participants. Since everyone is asked the same questions in the same order, the data collected is uniform and more straightforward to analyze. This consistency is a major benefit, particularly when large groups of people are interviewed. Researchers can efficiently group responses and look for patterns or commonalities.

In terms of logistics, structured interviews are often easier to organize. Since the interviewer doesn't need to improvise or follow up with new questions, it requires less skill and experience to conduct a structured interview. Interviewers can be easily trained to follow a pre-written guide, making it feasible for research teams to delegate this task to assistants.

Another practical advantage is that structured interviews can be conducted relatively quickly. Since there is a fixed set of questions, the duration of each interview is predictable, making it easier to plan for multiple interviews in a short period. This efficiency is valuable when dealing with large sample sizes.

Disadvantages of structured interviews

Structured interviews also come with limitations. The most notable drawback is the lack of flexibility. Because the questions are predetermined, the interviewer cannot ask probing questions or dig deeper into a respondent's answers. This rigidity can prevent the interviewer from fully understanding the participant's perspective, particularly if a respondent provides a vague or ambiguous answer.

Additionally, structured interviews may not capture the nuance or complexity of certain responses. Each person may interpret the same question differently, and the inability to adjust questions for clarification or further exploration can hinder data collection. In contrast, unstructured interviews allow for more dynamic conversations, where the interviewer can tailor questions based on the respondent’s unique answers.

The fixed order of questions can also be problematic. Some questions may not resonate with every participant in the same way. For example, a question that makes sense to one respondent may confuse another. In an unstructured format, the interviewer has the freedom to skip or rephrase questions, but structured interviews require the interviewer to stick to the script.

Overall, the biggest disadvantage of structured interviews is the risk of limiting the research to the initial set of questions. This makes it critical for researchers to carefully craft their interview questions and ensure they cover all the necessary topics. Conducting pilot tests of the questions is highly recommended to identify any issues or gaps before the actual interviews begin.

Structured interviews vs. surveys

Structured interviews are often compared to surveys with open-ended questions, as both methods involve predetermined questions. However, there are important differences. While surveys can reach a larger number of respondents, structured interviews offer more opportunities for clarification. If a respondent struggles to understand a question during an interview, the interviewer can provide additional context or examples, which is not possible in a survey.

Another advantage of structured interviews is the interpersonal interaction between the interviewer and respondent. Face-to-face communication often helps build rapport, making respondents more comfortable and willing to share detailed answers. In contrast, surveys, especially written ones, may feel impersonal and fail to elicit the same depth of response.

Interviews also tend to generate richer, more detailed responses compared to surveys. When participants are discussing topics of personal significance, the interview format gives them the space to elaborate on their thoughts, while surveys might constrain their responses.

Designing and conducting structured interviews

When planning a structured interview, the research design plays a crucial role. The interview guide, which contains all the questions the interviewer will ask, should be carefully designed based on a thorough literature review. This ensures that the questions are relevant and grounded in existing research.

In designing the interview, it’s important to consider the conditions under which the interview will be conducted. Uniformity in the interview environment can help mitigate external factors that may influence respondents' answers. For instance, interviews should ideally be conducted in quiet, comfortable settings to facilitate open communication.

Creating an interview guide involves crafting questions that align with the research goals and the theoretical framework. The number of questions may vary depending on the available time, but it's important to balance the depth of the questions with the length of the interview. Conducting pilot interviews helps fine-tune the questions and identify any issues before the actual data collection begins.

Collecting and analyzing data

Data collection in structured interviews is straightforward. The interviewer records the responses, typically using an audio recorder or, in some cases, video equipment for a more in-depth analysis of body language and facial expressions. After the interview, the recordings are transcribed for analysis.

In qualitative research, thematic analysis is a common method for analyzing structured interview data. The researcher identifies recurring themes and codes the responses accordingly. Since the questions are asked in a consistent order, it is easy to categorize and compare responses across participants. Software tools like ATLAS.ti can assist in organizing and coding the data.

Semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews are an effective method in qualitative research that allows for more flexibility than structured interviews while still providing a framework to guide the conversation. This format enables researchers to dig deeper into respondents' perspectives, offering the freedom to ask follow-up questions, yet still ensuring that essential topics are covered.

Advantages of semi-structured interviews

The primary benefit of semi-structured interviews is the ability to probe deeper into the respondent's answers. Unlike structured interviews, where the questions and order are fixed, semi-structured interviews allow the interviewer to follow up on interesting or unexpected points. This flexibility helps to elicit richer, more detailed information that can provide greater insights into the research topic.

Another advantage is that, despite the flexibility, the predetermined questions still provide structure. This ensures that key topics relevant to the research are thoroughly explored, even if the conversation takes different directions. The balance between flexibility and structure makes semi-structured interviews particularly useful in studies where a combination of depth and focus is necessary.

Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews

However, the open-ended nature of semi-structured interviews can also be a disadvantage. Because the conversation can sometimes stray off-topic, the interviewer must be skilled in keeping the discussion aligned with the research question. If the conversation diverges too much, the collected data may not be relevant to the research goals, leading to challenges in analysis.

Another downside is that semi-structured interviews require a more engaged interviewer. Active listening is critical to pick up on opportunities for further questioning, which means that interviewers need sufficient training. Inexperienced interviewers may struggle to maintain the balance between letting the conversation flow and keeping it focused on the research objectives. This adds a layer of complexity to the interview process that isn't present in more structured formats.

When to use a semi-structured interview

Semi-structured interviews are most beneficial when a researcher seeks to explore individual experiences and perspectives on a particular topic. This format is particularly useful when building theories in areas where existing literature lacks theoretical coherence. Since the conversation can adapt to the respondent’s insights, the semi-structured interview allows researchers to delve deeper into emerging ideas.

Researchers who use semi-structured interviews should have a clear agenda and specific research objectives to ensure the interviews remain focused. These objectives will guide the core questions posed to respondents while still allowing flexibility for further exploration. In studies that aim to explore personal experiences or build theories, the semi-structured format is ideal because it enables probing into respondents' ideas without losing sight of the research goals.

Best practices for conducting semi-structured interviews

Conducting a successful semi-structured interview requires careful planning and intentionality at each stage, from selecting participants to designing the questions. Choosing participants who are well-suited to the research topic is key. For instance, if the research focuses on a specific cultural practice, respondents with direct experience or knowledge of that practice will provide the most relevant data.

It's also important to prepare thoroughly for the interaction. Researchers should avoid using jargon or overly complex language when asking questions, and they should adapt their language based on the respondent’s background. Adjusting the approach depending on whether respondents are adults, children, or speakers of different languages ensures that the conversation remains accessible and productive.

Researchers should also consider the equipment used for data collection. While the audio recorder on a smartphone may be sufficient for capturing most interviews, professional equipment might be necessary in noisier environments or when more nuanced data, such as body language or facial expressions, are essential for analysis.

When to use a semi-structured interview

Semi-structured interviews are most beneficial when a researcher seeks to explore individual experiences and perspectives on a particular topic. This format is particularly useful when building theories in areas where existing literature lacks theoretical coherence. Since the conversation can adapt to the respondent’s insights, the semi-structured interview allows researchers to delve deeper into emerging ideas.

Researchers who use semi-structured interviews should have a clear agenda and specific research objectives to ensure the interviews remain focused. These objectives will guide the core questions posed to respondents while still allowing flexibility for further exploration. In studies that aim to explore personal experiences or build theories, the semi-structured format is ideal because it enables probing into respondents' ideas without losing sight of the research goals.

Best practices for conducting semi-structured interviews

Conducting a successful semi-structured interview requires careful planning and intentionality at each stage, from selecting participants to designing the questions. Choosing participants who are well-suited to the research topic is key. For instance, if the research focuses on a specific cultural practice, respondents with direct experience or knowledge of that practice will provide the most relevant data.

It's also important to prepare thoroughly for the interaction. Researchers should avoid using jargon or overly complex language when asking questions, and they should adapt their language based on the respondent’s background. Adjusting the approach depending on whether respondents are adults, children, or speakers of different languages ensures that the conversation remains accessible and productive.

Researchers should also consider the equipment used for data collection. While the audio recorder on a smartphone may be sufficient for capturing most interviews, professional equipment might be necessary in noisier environments or when more nuanced data, such as body language or facial expressions, are essential for analysis.

Crafting semi-structured interview questions

Preparing an interview guide is crucial when conducting semi-structured interviews. While the guide should list the key questions and topics to be covered, it should also be flexible enough to allow the conversation to flow naturally. Questions should be open-ended to invite in-depth responses and avoid eliciting socially desirable answers.

Researchers should also prepare follow-up questions or probes in advance. These can encourage respondents to elaborate on their answers or clarify points that might seem unclear. Probing questions help overcome the challenge of brief or unengaged responses by inviting participants to expand on their thoughts.

Collecting and analyzing data from semi-structured interviews

During and after the interview, researchers must ensure they collect qualitative data rigorously. The most common approach is to transcribe audio or video recordings of the interview conversations. High-quality recordings are essential for accurate transcription, and it’s often beneficial to use transcription software or professional services to streamline the process.

Once the data is transcribed, it can be analyzed using qualitative data analysis software like ATLAS.ti. The software helps organize and analyze the data. Coding typically begins with organizing answers according to the questions in the interview guide, which allows the researcher to compare responses across participants. Additional coding based on emerging themes can provide deeper insights into the data.

In addition to coding, researchers should consider taking notes during and after the interview. These notes can capture important observations about the interaction, which may not be evident in the transcript alone. For example, non-verbal cues like body language or tone of voice can add valuable context to verbal responses.

Preparing semi-structured interviews for analysis

Once an interview is complete, the research process does not stop at transcription. Researchers must carefully analyze the collected data to identify themes and patterns relevant to their research questions. Transcription accuracy is vital for a thorough analysis, and researchers may want to include details such as pauses or thinking sounds if they are relevant to the study.

After transcription, coding helps organize the data into meaningful categories. This process helps researchers explore patterns across participants' experiences and perspectives, allowing for a deeper understanding of the research topic.

Unstructured interviews

Unstructured interviews, often referred to as non-directive interviews, are highly conversational and flexible. In this method, the interviewer may start with a general topic but allows the conversation to flow naturally, encouraging the participants to share their thoughts and experiences freely. Unstructured interviews are particularly effective for exploring new or complex research topics where the researcher seeks to uncover unexpected insights. The open-ended nature of these interviews can yield rich, detailed data, but the lack of structure can make it difficult to compare responses across participants and can lead to a more time-consuming data collection process.

When to use unstructured interviews

Unstructured interviews are particularly well-suited for exploratory research where the goal is to develop a deep understanding of a phenomenon, especially when there is little existing theory to guide the research. This approach is often used in studies that aim to gather “thick descriptions,” a term that refers to the detailed exploration of a respondent’s perspectives to understand the complexity of social phenomena.

For example, in studies examining sensitive topics such as hospice care or migrant work, respondents might be more hesitant to open up if they are confronted with direct or structured questions. Unstructured interviews allow researchers to build rapport with participants, creating a more comfortable environment for them to share their thoughts and experiences openly.

When the primary objective is to develop trust and rapport, unstructured interviews offer an effective way to engage participants. The lack of a rigid structure allows the conversation to flow more naturally, which can make respondents feel more at ease, thereby increasing the likelihood of collecting meaningful data.

Advantages of unstructured interviews

One of the main advantages of unstructured interviews is their open-ended nature, which allows the conversation to move in any direction that may arise naturally. While the interviewer typically has a clear research objective, the lack of a rigid structure gives respondents greater control over the interaction. This can encourage them to provide more detailed and in-depth answers, particularly when discussing sensitive topics or personal experiences.

The freedom to explore respondents' perspectives in greater depth makes unstructured interviews ideal for studies that aim to gather rich, qualitative data. Researchers can gain a more nuanced understanding of the respondent’s viewpoints, social customs, or cultural practices, especially in areas where existing knowledge is limited.

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews

Despite their advantages, unstructured interviews come with several challenges. One of the primary drawbacks is the difficulty in analyzing and comparing the data collected from different participants. Because each respondent may focus on different aspects of the topic, the data can be diverse and less consistent, making it challenging to integrate different perspectives into a coherent analysis.

Another potential disadvantage is the risk of the conversation straying too far from the research topic. Since there is no predetermined set of questions, the interviewer must carefully manage the flow of the conversation to ensure that valuable information is being gathered. If the interviewer loses focus, the interview might venture into unrelated tangents, resulting in irrelevant data.

Unstructured interview process

Although unstructured interviews do not follow a set list of questions, they still require careful planning. The interviewer should have a clear understanding of the research topic and the objectives they aim to achieve. While there might not be specific questions to guide the interview, the interviewer should have a set of key topics they want to explore during the conversation.

Another crucial aspect of unstructured interviews is the interviewer’s ability to adapt to the conversation in real-time. This means knowing when to ask more probing questions and when to let the respondent steer the conversation. The ability to read social cues and adjust questioning based on the respondent’s comfort level is essential for successful data collection in this format.

The data collection phase in unstructured interviews can be one of the most dynamic aspects of the research process. Since there is no predetermined script, the interviewer must navigate the conversation with care, encouraging the respondent to share detailed narratives. Building rapport is essential, as it fosters an environment where respondents feel comfortable discussing their thoughts openly.

The interviewer should aim to gather detailed accounts from the respondents while avoiding leading questions that may influence their responses. Starting with simple, non-threatening questions is a good way to build rapport before moving on to more complex or sensitive topics.

How to analyze unstructured interviews

Analyzing unstructured interview data requires a systematic approach to make sense of the often-varied responses. Typically, interview data is transcribed, allowing the researcher to search for important phrases, patterns, or insights. Qualitative data analysis software like ATLAS.ti can be used to assist with organizing and coding the data. The software helps researchers identify key themes and compare responses across different participants.

Coding is an essential part of the analysis process. Researchers can begin by creating a list of preliminary codes based on their research questions, but they should remain open to new codes as they analyze the data. For example, they might conduct a thematic analysis, which involves identifying recurring themes or shared experiences across respondents.

Unstructured interviews can also be analyzed using discursive coding, which focuses on how respondents talk about a particular phenomenon. This approach is useful when the goal is to explore how individuals construct meaning around the topic of interest.

Focus groups

A focus group in research is a qualitative method that involves a small group of people engaging in a discussion guided by a moderator. Focus groups are interactive, allowing participants to share their opinions and perspectives on a topic, product, or service. This method is commonly used in market research and social sciences to observe social behavior and group dynamics in ways that individual interviews or observations cannot.

Purpose of a focus group

The primary purpose of a focus group is to gather diverse viewpoints and opinions that emerge in a group setting. Focus groups are particularly useful in situations where researchers need to understand how people interact with each other while discussing a topic. They can be used to explore new ideas, test concepts, or gain insight into social behaviors. The dynamic interaction between participants allows researchers to observe how opinions form and evolve in a social setting.

Size and composition of focus groups

A typical focus group consists of 6 to 10 participants, moderated by a facilitator. This size allows for a range of perspectives while ensuring that everyone has a chance to contribute. Having too few participants might limit the diversity of opinions, while too many can make it difficult to manage the discussion and ensure all voices are heard.

How focus groups work

Focus groups typically involve a set of open-ended questions prepared in advance by the researcher. These questions serve as prompts for discussion, guiding participants to share their thoughts on the topic at hand. The questions are broad and non-directive, encouraging participants to express themselves freely in their own words. The role of the moderator is to keep the conversation on track, probe for more details when necessary, and ensure that all participants have the opportunity to contribute.

Effectiveness of focus groups

What makes focus groups particularly effective is the social interaction among participants. Unlike individual interviews, focus groups allow researchers to observe how opinions are influenced by group dynamics. The back-and-forth nature of the discussion can stimulate new ideas, reveal areas of agreement or disagreement, and highlight how people negotiate and build consensus. These interactions provide deeper insights into not only what people think but also how and why they hold certain views.

Focus groups are versatile and can be used in a wide range of research contexts. They are especially valuable in exploratory research, where the goal is to gain a preliminary understanding of a new or complex issue. The interactive nature of focus groups helps researchers identify key themes, generate research propositions, and deepen their understanding of the research subject. This approach is also useful for generating new ideas in fields like product development, policy making, and program design.

In addition to idea generation, focus groups help researchers understand the language and terminology that participants use when discussing a topic. This insight can be crucial for developing surveys, interpreting qualitative data, or understanding how people assign meaning to their experiences.

Conclusion

Different types of interviews offer distinct advantages and challenges, each suited to particular research goals and contexts. Structured interviews provide consistency and ease of comparison, making them ideal for studies that require standardized data collection. Semi-structured interviews strike a balance between flexibility and structure, allowing researchers to explore key topics while probing deeper into respondents' perspectives. Unstructured interviews offer the greatest flexibility, enabling researchers to gather rich, in-depth data in an open and conversational format, particularly useful in exploratory research. Choosing the right interview type depends on the research objectives, the nature of the topic, and the desired depth of data collection, ensuring that the chosen method aligns with the study’s needs for gathering valuable insights.

References

1. Jamshed S. (2014). Qualitative research method-interviewing and observation. Journal of basic and clinical pharmacy, 5(4), 87–88. https://doi.org/10.4103/0976-0105.141942