Social desirability bias

Social desirability bias is a systematic error in which participants present responses that conform to social norms rather than revealing their true thoughts, behaviours, or experiences. This bias can severely distort research findings, particularly in qualitative studies, where the goal is often to explore sensitive or personal topics. In this article, we will explore the definition, causes, types and how to reduce social desirability bias.

Introduction

While it is not always the case, participants in qualitative studies can present themselves in ways that align with socially acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs. This tendency can lead to responses that reflect socially desirable behaviors rather than an individual's true thoughts or actions. For instance, participants might claim to engage in charitable donations, avoid controversial behaviours, or vote regularly, even when these claims are untrue.

Social desirability bias is the most studied form of response bias and can stem from various factors, including the nature of the data collection process, the public versus private nature of responses, and respondents’ expectations about how their answers will be perceived or used.

Social desirability bias can take the form of either self-deception, where participants genuinely view themselves favourably, or impression management, where they consciously provide false or exaggerated answers to create a positive image. Despite efforts to measure and reduce this using social desirability scales, these methods have limitations and may not be effective across different contexts, survey topics, or cultural settings. Understanding and addressing social desirability bias is critical to ensuring the accuracy and validity of qualitative research findings.

Types of social desirability bias

In qualitative research, social desirability bias can appear in two key ways: self-deception and impression management. Self-deception occurs when participants unknowingly present an overly positive self-image, also referred to as self-deceptive enhancement. They may genuinely believe they hold certain values or act in certain ways, even when their behavior contradicts these beliefs. This bias is often unconscious and deeply tied to their self-perception. On the other hand, impression management is a more deliberate form of bias. In this case, participants consciously tailor their responses to make a favorable impression on the interviewer, often seeking social approval. This may occur when discussing sensitive topics or when participants feel judged, prompting them to provide answers they think the interviewer wants to hear, rather than their authentic views. For example, in a study on health habits, a participant might overstate their adherence to a healthy diet to avoid appearing irresponsible.

The distinction between these two types of bias is crucial in qualitative research because each requires different strategies for mitigation. Self-deception is challenging to address, as it stems from participants' genuine belief in their responses. It often requires the researcher to use techniques like triangulation, where multiple data sources are compared to identify inconsistencies between self-reports and actual behavior. Impression management, however, can be managed more effectively by creating an interview environment where participants feel comfortable and reassured that they will not be judged based on their answers. Ensuring anonymity, building rapport, and using non-threatening questioning techniques are essential tactics for reducing this form of bias.

In practice, both forms of social desirability bias can significantly affect the quality of research findings if not properly managed. Researchers must be vigilant in detecting signs of biased responses and use thoughtful, well-designed strategies to minimize their impact. By understanding how these biases operate and adjusting the research approach accordingly, the data collected can better reflect the participants’ true behaviors, beliefs, and experiences.

How to detect social desirability bias

To detect social desirability bias in qualitative research, it is important that researchers attune to verbal and non-verbal indicators of bias in participants’ responses. According to Bergen and Labonté (2020), several key cues help in identifying this bias. These include outright denial of known issues, providing vague or incomplete answers, overpraising authorities, and exhibiting nervous behaviours. Each of these can signal that participants are attempting to present themselves or their communities in a more favourable light than is accurate.

For instance, in their study conducted in rural Ethiopia, the researchers noted that when participants were asked about common challenges, they often denied the existence of problems that had already been identified through previous research. In one example, women insisted that all births occurred in health facilities, even though home births were still widely practiced in the region. This immediate dismissal of challenges was a red flag for the research team that social desirability bias might be influencing the responses.

Another key signal of bias was the use of vague or partial responses, also known as paltering. For example, when religious leaders were asked about their roles in promoting community health, some would respond with generalities such as "we have a role" without offering any concrete details. This avoidance of specifics, especially on sensitive or controversial issues, is a common indicator of social desirability bias, as participants may wish to avoid admitting shortcomings or expressing potentially unpopular views.

Excessive and repeated praise for government programs or initiatives was another recurring theme. Participants would often go beyond answering the question to provide unprompted praise, such as expressing thanks to the government for improving health services, even when the study focused on barriers to healthcare access. This exaggerated positivity suggested that participants might be aligning their responses with what they believed the researchers, or their communities, wanted to hear rather than their true experiences.

Non-verbal cues also played a significant role in detecting bias. Nervous body language, including avoiding eye contact or shifting in their seats, was noted in participants who seemed uncomfortable with certain questions. For example, when asked about the involvement of local political leaders in community health, participants often exhibited signs of discomfort, which could suggest that they were censoring their answers to align with social norms or expectations.

Additionally, the research team observed inconsistencies in participants' language use. In some cases, respondents used vocabulary that appeared out of place for their educational level, likely because they had been briefed or coached on what to say by local health workers. This was a strong indication that their responses were influenced by external pressures, likely aimed at presenting the community in a positive light to outsiders.

A pattern emerged throughout the study where social desirability bias was most prominent at the beginning of interviews or focus group discussions but tended to diminish as participants grew more comfortable. This highlights the importance of building rapport early in the interview process, as participants who feel at ease with the interviewer are more likely to provide candid responses. Bergen and Labonté (2020) found that as participants grew more familiar with the interview process, their responses became more reflective of their actual experiences, indicating that establishing a trusting environment can help mitigate bias.

In sum, detecting social desirability bias involves paying close attention to both verbal and non-verbal signals, as well as looking for patterns of inconsistency in responses. Researchers need to be aware of these cues throughout the data collection process and use probing techniques or rapport-building strategies to encourage more genuine responses. While bias can never be fully eliminated, careful attention to these signs can help researchers identify and address its presence, leading to more insightful data and insights.

How to reduce social desirability bias

Reducing social desirability bias is essential in ensuring the quality of qualitative research findings. This bias, which occurs when participants alter their responses to align with socially accepted norms, can significantly distort data, particularly on sensitive topics. By implementing specific strategies, researchers can encourage more honest and authentic responses. These strategies involve careful design and execution of data collection methods, including ensuring confidentiality, indirect questioning, rapport building, and using diverse data collection techniques. This section explores effective approaches to minimizing social desirability bias in qualitative research.

In his paper, Bispo Júnior (2022) identified six strategies to control social desirability bias in qualitative health research.

Thorough study planning

Researchers must carefully define the study's objectives, choose appropriate research techniques, and select participants strategically. Triangulating data sources—such as supplementing interviews with participant observation—can help identify biased responses.

Neutral question formulation

Interview and focus group guides should avoid emotionally charged or leading questions. The sequence of questions should be designed to start with general, non-sensitive topics to ease participants into the conversation, allowing them to feel more comfortable before addressing more sensitive issues.

Ensuring privacy and confidentiality

Researchers must ensure that participants are interviewed in private settings without bystanders, and they must clearly communicate that all information shared will remain confidential. This is particularly important when discussing sensitive health topics like personal behaviors or family dynamics.

Building trust with participants

The researcher’s ability to develop a rapport with participants is crucial in reducing social desirability bias. Researchers should create a relaxed, respectful atmosphere to encourage honest responses, and prior contact with participants can help establish trust before data collection begins.

Careful selection of participants

The process of choosing participants should ensure they are comfortable with sharing true opinions and behaviors. Researchers should seek individuals who are genuinely willing to provide honest feedback rather than those who may feel pressure to present themselves in a positive light.

Training interviewers to recognize bias

Interviewers should be trained to identify potential signs of social desirability bias, such as overly agreeable responses or contradictions in participants’ answers. They should also avoid giving verbal or non-verbal cues that might influence the responses and use neutral reactions to encourage more honest answers.

Impact of social desirability bias on research

Social desirability bias significantly affects the validity and reliability of research findings, particularly in studies relying on self report data. This bias leads participants to modify their responses to align with socially accepted norms, resulting in overreporting of favourable behaviours and underreporting of unfavourable ones. Such distortions can compromise the accuracy of data, leading to misguided conclusions and ineffective policy recommendations.

In the study "Measuring social desirability bias in a multi-ethnic cohort sample: its relationship with self-reported physical activity, dietary habits, and factor structure," Teh et al. (2021) investigated the extent of social desirability bias in a multicultural Asian context. The researchers found that participants exhibited higher social desirability scores when reporting on lifestyle behaviours such as physical activity and dietary habits. Specifically, there was a tendency to overreport healthy behaviours and underreport unhealthy ones, which could lead to an overestimation of the population's overall health status (Teh et al., 2021).

The impact of this bias is multifaceted. Firstly, it can lead to inaccurate prevalence rates of certain behaviors within a population. For instance, public health initiatives based on inflated physical activity levels may underestimate the resources needed to address sedentary lifestyles. Secondly, social desirability bias can result in misidentification of at-risk groups. Teh et al. (2021) noted that older adults, individuals of certain ethnicities, and those with specific marital statuses were more prone to this bias. This misrepresentation can hinder targeted interventions aimed at vulnerable populations.

The bias affects the generalizability of research findings. In multicultural societies, cultural norms heavily influence what is considered a socially desirable manner, causing variability in responses across different groups. This cultural specificity makes it challenging to apply findings universally without accounting for these biases (Teh et al., 2021).

Lastly, social desirability bias can undermine the effectiveness of policy-making and program development. Policies formulated on distorted data may fail to address the actual needs of the population. Recognizing and adjusting for social desirability bias is crucial for developing accurate health assessments and effective interventions.

Conclusion

Social desirability bias presents a considerable challenge in qualitative research, particularly when addressing sensitive or personal topics. This bias occurs when participants modify their responses to align with socially acceptable norms, either through self-deception—where they genuinely believe their skewed responses—or impression management, where they consciously attempt to present themselves more favorably. Such bias distorts research findings, leading to inaccurate representations of participants' true thoughts, behaviors, or experiences. Overreporting positive behaviors like charitable donations or healthy habits, and underreporting negative ones, can result in misguided conclusions and ineffective policy recommendations. The challenge is especially acute in studies involving personal beliefs or behaviors, where participants might feel compelled to give socially acceptable answers rather than truthful ones. As a result, social desirability bias threatens the quality of data, particularly in studies that rely heavily on self-reported information.

To address this, researchers can implement several strategies to mitigate social desirability bias and improve the accuracy of their findings. Ensuring confidentiality and building rapport with participants helps create a trusting environment where they feel more comfortable sharing honest responses. Neutral, open-ended questions reduce the likelihood of leading participants to socially desirable answers, while indirect questioning techniques—such as asking about general trends rather than personal behaviors—can help elicit more truthful responses. Additionally, using triangulation by cross-checking multiple data sources, such as interviews and participant observations, can reveal inconsistencies that may indicate bias. Training interviewers to recognize signs of social desirability bias, like overly agreeable responses or vague answers, can also help detect and address the issue. By carefully designing their studies and applying these strategies, researchers can reduce the influence of social desirability bias, leading to more valid, reliable, and actionable data.

References

1. Bispo Júnior J. P. (2022). Social desirability bias in qualitative health research. Revista de saude publica, 56, 101. https://doi.org/10.11606/s1518-8787.2022056004164
2. Bergen N, Labonté R. “Everything Is Perfect, and We Have No Problems”: Detecting and Limiting Social Desirability Bias in Qualitative Research. Qualitative Health Research. 2020;30(5):783-792. doi:10.1177/1049732319889354
3. Teh, W.L., Abdin, E., P.V., A. et al. Measuring social desirability bias in a multi-ethnic cohort sample: its relationship with self-reported physical activity, dietary habits, and factor structure. BMC Public Health 23, 415 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15309-3