Phenomenography in Research | Definition & Method

Introduction

Phenomenography is a qualitative research approach that helps researchers tackle key challenges in understanding the different ways people experience, understand, and conceptualize various aspects of a phenomena. Originating in the field of education, it is often used to explore how individuals perceive and engage with specific concepts or activities. This approach is particularly useful in identifying the range of experiences within a group, making it valuable for studies that aim to understand variations in perception rather than universal truths.

In this article, we will define phenomenography, discuss its origins and assumptions, and outline the key aspects of conducting phenomenographic research.

What is the meaning of phenomenography?

Phenomenography is a qualitative research method that focuses on understanding the different ways people perceive, understand, or experience a particular phenomenon. Unlike other approaches that might aim to uncover a single objective truth or reality, phenomenography acknowledges and values the diversity of individual experiences. It is rooted in the belief that people's experiences are shaped by their unique contexts, backgrounds, and interactions with the world around them. This method seeks to map out these variations in understanding, offering a structured way to categorize and analyze the different perspectives people hold regarding the same phenomenon.

At its core, phenomenography is concerned with describing the range of experiences related to a specific concept or phenomenon. It does not aim to judge or rank these experiences but rather to document them in a way that highlights the richness and diversity of human understanding. This makes phenomenography particularly useful in addressing challenges in science education and other similar contexts, where it can be applied to understand how different learners perceive and engage with the same content or learning experience. The insights gained from phenomenographic studies can inform teaching practices, curriculum design, and policy-making, as they provide a deeper understanding of the various ways in which individuals construct meaning in their educational journeys.

What are the origins of phenomenography?

The origins of phenomenography can be traced back to Sweden in the late 1970s, where it was developed by Ference Marton and his colleagues at the University of Gothenburg (Marton, 2004). Marton, an educational psychologist, was interested in understanding the differences in how students experience and understand academic content. His research revealed that students learn and retain vastly different conceptions of the same subject matter, even when they had been exposed to the same teaching materials and methods. This realization led Marton to develop phenomenography as a research approach that could systematically explore and categorize these variations in understanding.

The development of phenomenography was influenced by Marton’s dissatisfaction with traditional educational research methods that focused primarily on measuring students’ knowledge in terms of right and wrong answers. He believed that such methods failed to capture the nuances of students' understanding and the underlying reasons for their different perceptions. Phenomenography, therefore, emerged as a response to the need for a more nuanced and descriptive approach to studying learning and understanding.

In its early days, phenomenography was closely associated with educational research, particularly higher education research. Marton and his colleagues conducted several influential studies that used phenomenographic methods to explore how students understood key concepts in subjects like physics, biology, and economics. These studies revealed that students' conceptions could be grouped into distinct categories, each representing a different way of understanding the same phenomenon. The findings of these studies had a significant impact on educational theory and practice, highlighting the importance of considering the diversity of student learning.

Over time, phenomenography has been adopted and adapted by researchers in various fields beyond education. It has been used in healthcare, business, psychology, and other disciplines to explore how individuals and groups perceive and experience different aspects of their work, health, and everyday lives. Despite its expansion into new areas, the core principles of phenomenography—its focus on variation in experience and its commitment to describing rather than evaluating these experiences—have remained central to its application.

What are the main assumptions of phenomenography?

Phenomenography is based on several key assumptions that distinguish it from other qualitative research methods. Understanding these assumptions is important for appreciating how phenomenography functions as a research approach and what it aims to achieve.

First, phenomenography assumes that there is no single, objective reality that can be fully understood or represented. Instead, it posits that reality is experienced differently by different individuals, and these experiences are shaped by a variety of factors, including cultural, social, and personal contexts. This assumption means that phenomenography is not concerned with determining the "correct" or "true" understanding of a phenomenon but with exploring and categorizing the different ways it is perceived and understood by different people.

Second, phenomenography operates on the assumption that individuals' experiences and understandings can be systematically categorized. While each person’s experience is unique, phenomenography holds that these experiences can be grouped into categories that represent different ways of understanding the same phenomenon. These categories are not seen as rigid or hierarchical; rather, they reflect the range of possible ways people might conceptualize an experience. The goal is to identify these categories and describe them in a way that captures the essential features of each.

Third, phenomenography assumes that the variation in people’s experiences is a valuable source of insight. Rather than seeing differences in understanding as a problem to be solved, phenomenography views these differences as opportunities to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon under study. By mapping out the range of experiences, phenomenography provides a fuller picture of how people relate to and make sense of the world around them.

Finally, phenomenography assumes that these categories of description, once identified, can be used to inform practice. In educational contexts, for example, understanding the different ways students perceive a concept can help educators design teaching strategies that address these varied understandings. In other fields, such as healthcare or business, phenomenographic findings can be used to tailor interventions, communication strategies, or policies to better meet the needs of different groups.

What is phenomenographic research?

Phenomenographic research is a qualitative approach designed to identify and describe the different ways individuals perceive, understand, or experience a particular phenomenon. Unlike methods that seek to determine a single, objective reality, phenomenography recognizes the diversity in how people interpret the same phenomenon. This method is particularly useful in fields like education, healthcare, and organizational studies, where understanding the variety of experiences within a group is important.

The process of phenomenographic research typically involves collecting data through interviews or surveys, where participants are asked to describe their experiences or perceptions. The researcher then analyzes this data to identify distinct categories of description, each representing a different way of understanding the phenomenon. These categories are not meant to be exhaustive but rather to capture the range of perspectives present in the group. The final outcome is an "outcome space," which visually or descriptively represents the relationships between these various understandings.

What sort of research questions are addressed by phenomenography?

Phenomenography is particularly suited to research questions that explore the different ways in which people understand or experience a specific phenomenon. Instead of measuring the frequency or intensity of these experiences, phenomenography seeks to map out the variety of perspectives within a group. Some examples of research questions that might be addressed by phenomenography include:

• How do students in a particular course understand the concept of critical thinking? This question helps to identify the different ways students perceive critical thinking, which can inform more effective teaching strategies.
• What are the various ways healthcare professionals perceive patient-centered care? Understanding these different perceptions can lead to more personalized and effective approaches in healthcare practices.
• How do employees within an organization understand the concept of leadership? Investigating different conceptions of leadership can provide insights that inform leadership development programs and improve organizational culture.

These types of research questions are focused on understanding the diversity of experiences and perceptions within a group, making phenomenography an ideal method for studies where this diversity is a key focus.

What is the difference between ethnography and phenomenography?

While both ethnography and phenomenography are qualitative research methods, they differ in their focus and approach. Ethnography involves the in-depth study of people and cultures, typically through extended fieldwork that includes participant observation, interviews, and the collection of artifacts. Unlike phenomenography, the primary aim of other qualitative methods like ethnography is to understand the social dynamics, practices, and cultural meanings within a specific group or community, emphasizing the context in which these interactions occur.

Phenomenography, on the other hand, focuses on understanding the variations in how people experience or conceptualize a specific phenomenon. Rather than immersing the researcher in a culture or community, phenomenographic research usually involves interviews or surveys designed to elicit participants' descriptions of their experiences or understandings. The goal is to categorize these different ways of understanding and provide a structured overview of the range of perspectives within a group.

In summary, ethnography seeks to understand the broader context of social and cultural interactions, while phenomenography is more concerned with the differences in individual perceptions of a specific phenomenon.

When is it useful to use phenomenographic research methods?

Phenomenographic research methods are particularly useful when understanding the diversity of perspectives within a group is essential. This approach is especially valuable in educational settings, where it can help educators understand the different ways students perceive and engage with learning materials or concepts. For example, a phenomenographic study might reveal that students have varying understandings of a key concept in a science class, such as energy. By identifying these different conceptions, educators can tailor their teaching strategies to address these variations, ultimately improving learning outcomes.

In healthcare, phenomenography can be used to explore how patients or healthcare providers understand concepts like health, illness, or patient-centered care. Understanding these variations in perception can inform the development of communication strategies, treatment plans, or policies that are better aligned with the needs and perspectives of different groups.

Phenomenography is also valuable in organizational research, where it can be used to investigate how employees understand key organizational concepts, such as leadership, teamwork, or corporate culture. By mapping out these different perceptions, organizations can develop targeted interventions or training programs that address the specific needs and challenges faced by their workforce.

How do you conduct phenomenography?

Conducting phenomenographic research involves several key steps designed to capture the variations in how people experience or understand a specific phenomenon. The process requires careful planning and a systematic approach to qualitative methods of data collection and analysis, ensuring that the diversity of perspectives are represented.

Designing the study and selecting participants

The first step in conducting phenomenography is to clearly define the phenomenon of interest. This involves formulating a research question that aims to uncover the different ways people understand or experience the chosen phenomenon. Once the research question is established, the next step is to select participants who have varying experiences or understandings related to the phenomenon. Unlike quantitative research, which typically requires large, random samples, phenomenography often uses purposive sampling to ensure that a diverse range of perspectives is represented.

Research participants should be chosen based on their relevance to the research question rather than their representativeness of the general population. This might involve selecting individuals from different backgrounds, professions, or educational levels who are likely to provide varied insights into the phenomenon. The goal is to capture a range of experiences, which will later be categorized during the analysis.

Data collection through interviews or surveys

Data collection in phenomenography typically involves conducting semi-structured interviews or administering open-ended surveys. Interviews are the most common method, as they allow researchers to explore participants' experiences and understandings in depth. During the interview, participants are encouraged to describe their experiences and perspectives in their own words, without being led or influenced by the interviewer. The questions are usually open-ended, allowing participants to express their thoughts freely and providing the researcher with rich, detailed data.

The interview process should be flexible, with the interviewer adapting their questions based on the participant's responses to ensure a full exploration of their perspective. The aim is to elicit descriptions that reveal how participants conceptualize the phenomenon, focusing on the key aspects they consider important. Importantly, researchers can use follow-up questions or prompts to clarify or deepen the participant's responses.

While interviews are preferred, surveys can also be used, especially when interviewing is not feasible. Surveys should include open-ended questions that allow respondents to articulate their understanding of the phenomenon in detail. The key is to gather qualitative data that reflects the participants' perspectives without imposing the researcher's assumptions.

Analyzing data and identifying categories of description

Phenomenographic data analysis involves identifying the different ways participants have understood or experienced the phenomenon. The process begins with transcribing the interviews or survey responses and immersing oneself in the data. The researcher reads through the data multiple times to identify significant statements and patterns that reflect different understandings.

Once the initial patterns are identified, the researcher categorizes these into distinct categories of description. Each category represents a qualitatively different way of understanding the phenomenon, and together, they capture the range of perspectives present in the data. The goal is not to quantify these categories but to describe them in a way that highlights the key differences in how the phenomenon is perceived.

After identifying the categories, the researcher creates an "outcome space," which is a visual or descriptive representation of the relationships between these categories. The outcome space shows how the different understandings relate to each other, providing a complete overview of the variations in experience within the group.

The final step involves reflecting on the categories and the outcome space to ensure that they represent the data and the research question. This phase may also involve revisiting the data to refine the categories or the relationships between them, ensuring a robust analysis.

References

• Marton, F. (2004). Phenomenography: A research approach to investigating different understandings of reality. In R. R. Sherman & R. B. Webb, Qualitative research in education: Focus and methods (pp. 141-161). Routledge.